Every writer, no matter how experienced and successful, knows that revising writing is almost as important as writing in the first place. The simple truth is that writing almost never appears on paper in perfect, final form. It can always benefit from re-vision: seeing your writing again.
You can choose when to perform revision, depending on your personal writing preferences. Some people prefer to write the entire first draft, let it rest for a few days, then return with a clear eye to revise the entire document. Others prefer to revise individual sections of writing as they go. Consider trying both ways, and finding out what’s most effective for you.
Here are several specific suggestions to guide you through your revision process:
- If you’re not in the habit of making even informal outlines, reconsider. They are invaluable for making order out of chaos. Use full sentences for each outlined section to avoid confusing yourself. Try the cut-and-paste method, too, for revising your organization.
- Remember how important it is to achieve the same kind of objectivity and distance from your work that your reader has. Try to judge your work dispassionately, as a reader would judge it.
- Set your document aside for a time.
- Type it and print it if you haven’t already done so.
- Read your draft aloud, either to yourself or to someone else. Or ask someone to read it to you while you follow with the text.
- Revise all the larger issues (The Big Picture) before you worry over individual words or phrases.
- Make sure your own purpose for your paper is clear to you, and that you have an equally clear sense of audience. Know exactly to whom you’re writing, what you’re trying to communicate, and why. Force yourself to cut everything that is not related to your main purpose; develop further any important ideas that you suspect are unclear.Study articles within your own discipline and notice the tone and approach most generally adopted by published authors. Strive to present yourself as they do. If your discipline favors an author who sounds authoritative, then present your case with an “I can prove this is true” attitude. If, however, you are advised to be cautious, you’ll need to use more conditionals (could, may) and qualifiers (“under optimum conditions”).
- Practice stylistic analysis. If you admire a particular writing style, then try to figure out specifically what you like, and start doing it yourself. Look for:
- length of sentences
- types of sentences
- number of sentences in paragraphs
- terminology used
- use of transitions
- use of punctuation
- amount of subordination vs. coordination
- order and arrangement of material within sections
- placement of main idea, hypothesis, objectives.
- Get as much feedback from others as you can. Consider forming a peer reader group to help each other. If you’re interested in comments about something particular about your writing, make a list of questions targeted to that area. You may want to submit these questions to your professors to elicit their responses.
- Try not to think of your writing in terms of “good” or “bad.” Focus instead on “effective” or “ineffective” as useful terms that will help you think about the needs of your readers.
- Learn when to stop revising! You can actually reach a point where you are no longer able to see your own work clearly. Then you’ll be contradicting #2 and losing your objectivity. Stay objective and simply strive for clarity. If you no longer know what you’re revising, return to #2.
- Keep in mind that good writing develops over time, just as the writer grows and develops with time.
| A Small Checklist for Style | |
| _____ | Always ask yourself, “Who did what?” in each sentence. Identify actors and actions when a sentence is garbled and make sure they occupy the appropriate place in the sentence. |
| _____ | “Put at the beginning of a sentence ideas that you have already referred to” and that your reader will easily recognize (Williams 40). |
| _____ | “Put at the end of your sentence the newest, the most surprising, the most significant information you want to stress, perhaps the information . . . you will expand on” next (Williams 40). |
| _____ | Place transitional words and phrases towards the beginning of your sentences. |
| _____ | Eliminate unneccessary nominalizations (e.g. “There is a need for further study” can be replaced by “The staff must study. . .”). |
| _____ | Examine use of the passive and active voices. |
| _____ | Set off crucial ideas in sentence structures that emphasize them. |
| _____ | Reduce strings of relative clauses (introduced by who, which, that – etc.) Consider breaking a long sentence into two or more separate sentences. |
| _____ | Eliminate multiple subordinate conjunctions in the same sentence (these usually concern time, cause, purpose, condition, comparison, place, and manner). |
| _____ | Rewrite multiple independent clauses linked together with coordinate conjunctions. Try some subordinate clauses for variety. |
| _____ | Try using semicolons and colons if you habitually avoid them. |
| _____ | Consult following sheet for removing “verbiage.” |
| _____ | Monitor your use of “there is/there are,” and other forms of the verb to be and to have. Overuse will make your prose feel motionless. |
| _____ | Check for agreement. |
| _____ | Try to avoid separating the subject and verb by a long clause or phrase in between. |
| _____ | Make sure that the reader knows the antecedent for a pronoun. |
| _____ | If you’re using charts and tables, make sure you refer to them in the text, and that you use the appropriate reference number (Table I, etc.). |
| _____ | Arrange your sources chronologically to aid in organization and reference. Number sources to correspond to outline or to page numbers of your draft. |
Appendix A
Verbiage: Wordiness and Circumlocution
Scientific writing must be concise to be clear; readers should not have to interpret away words and phrases that do not contribute to meaning. The wordiness is often due to empty phrases, which sound meaningful, but are usually familiar fillers or cliches. Some form the opening of sentences, weakening them by their vacuousness. Some of these wordy phrases are listed together with concise alternatives that might be equivalents.
| Phrases | |
| accounted for the fact that: because a majority of: most a number of: several, some a very limited number of: few an innumerable number of spines: many spines are of the same opinion: agree as it were: [omit] as shown in Table 3: see Table 3, (Table 3)as yet: [omit] ascertain the location of: find conducted inoculation experimentson: inoculated created the possibility of: made possible decreased number of: fewer definitely showed: showed despite the fact that: although due to the fact that: because exhibited good growth: grew well give rise to: result in, cause goes under the name of: is called, is termed greater number of: more has been the subject of study: has been studied has the capability of: can lacked the ability to: could not large number(s) of: many | large proportion of: much, most lesser extent, degree: less, smaller made a count: counted not as yet: not yet owing to the fact that: because referred to as: called, termed pertaining to: about prior to: before relative to: about serves the function of transferring: transfers similar in every detail: the same, identical small(er) number of: few, fewer species in which spines are lacking: spineless species, species without spines sufficient number of: enough subsequent to: after take into consideration: consider tenacious in character: tenacious the fact that: that throw more light on: make clearer the analysis in question: this analysis, the analysis the fact that: because the treatment having been performed: after the treatment was of the opinion that: believed, thought |
| Prepositional Phrases | |
| along the lines of: like, similar to at about: about at some future time: later at the present moment (time), at this time (moment), at this point in time: now, at present, currently by means of: by, with due to the fact that: because during the course of: during, while during the time that: while for the purpose of studying: for studying, to study for the reason that: because from the standpoint of: according to in a considerable number of cases: often, frequently in a few cases: infrequently in a position to: can, may in a satisfactory manner: satisfactorily in all cases: always, invariably, (usually) in an adequate manner: adequately in case: if in case that: if, when in this case: here in close proximity to: near, close to in connection with: about, for in a very real sense: actually in excess of: more than in most cases: mostly, usually in nature: [omit] in no case: never (state what was not found] in order to: to | in question: (omit, can use studied] in regard to: about in relation to: about in respect to: about in terms of: for, with in the case of: for, in in the context of: about in the course of: during in the event that: if in the near future: soon in the present communication: here, in this paper in the vicinity of: near in view of the fact that: because of great importance: important, very important of large size: large of such strength that: so strong that on account of: because on the basis of: because, from, by on the part of: by, with on the grounds that: because on the order of: about on the other hand: however, but through the use of: by, with to bear in mind: [omit], to recall with a view to: to with regard to: about, in, to, for with reference to: about [omit] with the exception of: except with the result that: so that |
| Introductory Phrases and Clauses | |
| As a consequence of: Because As already stated: [omit] As a matter of fact: In fact, Indeed As can be seen from Figure 5, the tissue:Figure 5 shows that the tissue; The Tissue . . . (Figure S); The tissue . . . (see Figure 5). As far as these observations are concerned, they: These observations show As far as this particular species is concerned, it: This species As for these experiments, they are: These experiments are As of now: Now Be that as it may: Regardless, Nevertheless As regards these measurements, they: These measurements As to whether: Whether At the present writing: Now, Currently Concerning these results, it must be borne in mind (remembered) that: These results, Recall that these results For the purpose of this research, it was found necessary to make three replications: Three replications were necessary From the standpoint of: [omit] Considering all the evidence: The evidence Despite the fact that: Although If conditions are such that: if In a considerable number of cases: Often, Frequently In connection with this procedure: This procedure In spite of the: Despite the In the case that, In the event that: If, When In this connection, it may be stated that: [omit and make statement] In view of the fact that: Because, It appears that: apparently, (make statement and qualify verb] It has been reported by Green: Green has reported It has been found convenient: For convenience It has long been known that: [omit, include in statement if time known is important] It is abundantly clear that, it is dear that:ClearlyIt is apparent therefore that: Therefore It is at this point that: Here It is also of importance that: Also It is believed that: (omit; incorporate as verb in statement of belief) It is important to note that: [omit], Note that It is noted that if: If | |